|
Jeffrey McNeely - Programme Leader
Visit The
World Conservation Union (IUCN)
While many view the alien invasives species problem primarily
in biological terms, it is in fact a profoundly human problem.
Most invasive species are transported by people, either
intentionally or inadvertently. The faunal and floral assemblages
found in any particular location have been profoundly influenced
by human activities. However, the precise relationship between
people and alien invasive species remains little studied and
obscure to most of the general public. This project will examine
the human dimensions of the problem, including socio-economic
issues, the key interest groups involved (either in spreading
alien invasives or controlling them), the cultural dimensions of
the problem, the relationship with global trade and the global
market system, human sttlement patterns and ethical issues.
Having identified the main issues, the project will then generate
recommendations for new policies, institutional responses, and
management actions.
Objectives
Background
Alien invasive species have been identified as the leading
culprits in species extinction, especially on islands. The Global
Biodiversity Assessment (UNEP, 1995) provided considerable detail
about the impact of alien invasives on biodiversity in virtually
all parts of the globe. IUCN's SSC Invasive Species Specialist
Group has been established to deal with the biological issues of
the problem, has established a Web Site, publishes a newsletter,
and is undertaking numerous activities in this field. The
Norway-UN Conference on Alien Species (Trondheim, July 1996) and
the workshop on alien species at IUCN's World Conservation
Congress (Montreal, October 1996) have clearly identified alien
invasive species as an issue of great concern to the conservation
community.
Historical perspectives on invasive species (e.g., Kuddihy and
Stone, 1990; Crosby, 1986) indicate the continuity of invasive
species problems over a very long period of time, showing that
the problems of today are novel in their extent but not
necessarily in their character. The historical perspective also
demonstrates that while invasive species often threaten native
communities of plants and animals, single-factor explanations for
species extinctions are simplistic, and extinctions are usually
the result of synergistic interactions between multiple factors
(Pimm, 1996). This requires very sophisticated approaches to
dealing with invasive species issues.
The vast majority of invasives today are either transmitted or
facilitated by human activity with an economic objective. In
seeking to maximize productivity for human ends, those promoting
industrial forms of agriculture promote monocultural,
energy-intensive farming practices that are the epitome of
reductions of variation and loss of resilience. The spread of
agriculture may lead to significant declines in diversity from
hundreds of species to just one dominant plus accompanying weeds.
Many of these monocultures are exotic species that can escape the
farmer's field and become invasive.
It is important to distinguish between the two main categories
of invasives. "Accidental invasives" are those species
that are "silent invaders" who invade without anyone
necessarily being aware of their invasion. Zebra mussels in
ballast water, or mosquitoes in water caught in recycled
automobile tyres might fall into this category. "Purposeful
invaders" are those brought into a country with the full
knowledge of those who are bringing them in. These two categories
require fundamentally different kinds of responses because they
result from two very different kinds of human behaviour.
While the issue of alien invasive species affects all members
of society, it is useful to divide the key players into several
categories, including commercial interests, consumers, indigenous
peoples, regulatory agencies, and several others. Considering the
human dimensions of the problem may also require rather different
approaches to the different key audiences, involving a clear
identification of the interests of these various groups.
One key issue requiring particular attention is the cultural
dimensions of the impact of invasive species. At least part of
the world's cultural diversity is due to the local patterns of
distribution of plants and animals, because the locally-available
resources and how they are used help to define the character of
any particular cultural group. Invasive species that replace
native species may have a cultural impact on these societies; but
in other cases, the invasive species are very welcome. For
example, Australian Aborigines today are hunting some of the
large mammals that have invaded Australia (such as water buffalo)
and they consider that the government programmes to control these
alien invasives in the name of protecting native fauna and flora
is affecting an important food source for them. They are thus
being forced to turn their hunting attention to native species
that are already under threat.
As another example, the invasion of Lake Victoria by the Nile
perch has led to the loss of some 70% of the cichlid species of
fish in the lake, perhaps the worst extinction episode in this
century. Yet for the local people the Nile perch is known as Mkombosli,
"the Saviour". It is a superb source of food, the basis
of a rapidly developing local industry, and an important economic
asset. What does the extinction of an evolutionary suite matter
to the people living around Lake Victoria?
Further, the increasing seriousness of the invasive species
problem cannot be separated from the global marketplace that is
helping to foster greater consumption of natural resources, which
some consider to be indicators of increasing economic well-being.
People concerned about globalization and its accompanying
homogenization of cultures are worried that corporations are
creating an artificial need for their products in order to foster
greater consumption, leading, for example, to the best
agricultural land being used to feed the global marketplace with
alien species. Thus the issue of invasive species is difficult to
separate from more fundamental development issues. A
consideration of the market aspects of the invasive species
problem could lead to market-based approaches to addressing the
problem.
Linked to the global marketplace, the world is becoming
increasingly urban, with half the world's population expected to
be living in cities by the year 2000. This too has important
influences on invasive species because urban dwellers often seek
ornamentals from a wide range of sources, and these may become
invasive. London, for example, has more species of plants
established in viable populations then all of the rest of England
combined, and many European cities have more alien species of
plants than natives. Urbanization involves large and mobile
populations that can easily escape the environmental penalties
from over-using resources. Further, they are seldom aware of the
problems of invasive species because they have essentially lost
their connections to the natural environment. Settlement patterns
also involve transportation links, and the distribution of many
invasives seem to follow transportation corridors. Thus human
settlement patterns, too, are part of the invasive species issue.
Finally, the alien invasive species issue is at its very
foundation an ethical concern. If people are seeking to maximize
their material welfare, or even the diversity of species with
which they surround themselves, invasive species might well be a
part of their rational response. But if people want diversity and
cultural identity based on their historical suite of species,
then control of invasives might be a far more reasonable
response. Some experts contend that invasive species are inimical
to human welfare because they reduce productivity, transmit
disease, and replace valued species. But this requires clear
evidence of the veracity of this contention. Since invasions
invariably involve trade-offs, the determination of costs and
benefits of invasive species becomes paramount.
This background has demonstrated some of the human dimensions
of the invasive species issue, many of which remain only poorly
known. The proposed project would seek greater elucidation of
these issues.
Products and Beneficiaries
The general output of this project will be an increased
understanding of the human dimension in one of the most important
biodiversity issues facing humanity, namely that of alien
invasive species and the global homogenization of our flora and
fauna. More specific outputs include:
-
Specific advice provided to the Conference of the Parties
of the Convention on Biological Diversity, and its
Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and
Technological Advice on the issue of alien species;
The outputs will be used to increase public awareness of the
problems of invasive species, the human dimensions of the
invasive species issue, and the steps that need to be taken to
address the issue. More specifically, the outputs will be
provided to key decision makers who will be identified during the
course of the project, in both public and private sectors; they
will use the products to modify their policies, procedures, and
management activities.
The project will generate considerable global benefits by
contributing to an international response to the problem of alien
invasive species, a threat that affects biodiversity in all parts
of our planet.
|
